Historical, Cultural and Philosophical Approaches to Massage

Historical, Cultural and Philosophical Approaches to Massage


Massage is the most natural, instinctive method, of applying pressure to an injury to relieve pain or rubbing an ache for comfort. It has been around for centuries in all cultures. In the early days a Sharman (village healer) would perform massage by using herbs, needles in local points, magic and moxibustion. Massage has since developed throughout the world dependant on the cultural perception.

Eastern massage:

The art of massage has strong roots in the eastern culture with Chinese massage records dating back to as early as 3000 BC (Salvo, 2007). An ancient text known as The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine describes massage to be one of the five main treatments to ailments within that era. Much belief is possessed on the body’s natural meridians and life force called chi. From 90 BC the fundamental ideas were to find the points on the body where various movements such as rubbing, stroking and finger pressure were most effective. The traditional massage technique called Anmo has developed over many years and is still used today in Chinese health system. Shiatsu, a Japanese massage technique from the 6th century, is very similar to that of Anmo, where points on the body are stimulated to effect the circulation and free the obstructed flow of vital energy (chi). It is believed the knowledge of massage transferred to the Hindu culture by the Chinese via the trade routes (Tuchtan, Tuchtan and Stelfox, 2004). Ayurveda (art of life) has since become an important aspect in the traditional system of healing and Hindu culture. The Laws of Man date back to 300 BC which defined the duties of everyday life, including ways to promote and maintain personal hygiene, diet, exercise and tschanpua (massage in the bath) (Tuchtan, Tuchtan and Stelfox, 2004).

Western Massage:

Western knowledge of massage developed from the 7th and 6th centuries BC (Salvo, 2007). An era of scientific knowledge brought with it an emphasis on massage for its many beneficial results. The Greeks used regular rituals of bathing, using gymnastics and massage to build an athlete and primarily focused on a specific ailment. There was much learnt about the anatomy and physiology of the body and there were many significant figures in the development of massage in the western tradition.

Hippocrates of Cos (460-380 BC) is known as the father of medicine, his oath of ethics is still taught to physicians today. He was confident about the effects of massage. Although the venous circulation had not been discovered yet, Hippocrates stated that it was necessary to rub a part of the body upwards, not downwards to bind a loose joint or release a rigid joint. He also believed that it was necessary for all physicians to be trained in the art of massage alongside as the treatment of general bodily diseases (Beck, 2006).
Claudius Galen (130- 200 AD) as a Greek physician to gladiators he gained much knowledge of the human anatomy and has also said to have discovered that arteries and veins held blood. His many writings on health hygiene, exercise and massage stressed the importance of massage for a healthy body and mind (Beck, 2006).

The popularity and advancement of massage declined significantly in during the middle ages (400-1450). The sciences and arts suffered harsh obstructions due to religious beliefs and superstition that massage witchcraft and connected to the work of Staten. Massage was still practiced, however was forced to go underground for a number of years. During the 16th Century, medical and scientific remedies were then favoured over the faithful massage.

Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839) from Sweden focused on the gymnastic movements to apply passive and duplicated movements to his fencing students. These movements became the basis of a movement called the Swedish gymnastics. He also established the Royal Swedish Central Institute of Gymnastics in 1813. After Ling died in 1839, his gymnastics theory spread throughout Europe via Ling’s pupils publishing his works although he was criticised for his lack of professional training (Beck, 2006).

Dr. Johann Metzger (1839-1909) had a more scientific approach to massage; focusing on the effects of remedial treatment he was able to bring more credibility to the massage within the health community. His French expressions for the massage movements are still taught today such as effleurage and petrisage (Tuchtan, Tuchtan and Stelfox, 2004).
John Harvey Kellogg (1852-1943) was an American doctor who founded the Battle Creek Sanatorium in Michigan. Kellogg wrote many books on treatments including massage and hydrotherapy and popularised the health spa in America (Fritz, 2009)

Contemporary Massage:

There has been much advancement in the field of massage therapy in the last century. This beneficial progression has helped increase the knowledge and the skill base for Massage Therapists; therefore broadening the scope of practice.
Such developments as Dr Emil Vodder’s (1896-1986) manual lymphatic drainage has become important by using both mechanical and reflexive techniques to effectively relieve chronic lymphedema and other diseases of the lymph circulation (Beck, 2006).
Deep transverse friction massage was popularised by James Cyriax (1907-1947) as a more specific example of connective tissue work, this involved cross-fibre friction massage as a way of loosening bound ligaments and tendons around a joint (Beck, 2006).

Maori Massage:

Closer to home, there are three main types of massage that are practiced by Maori. These include Toto, which is practiced on children, Roromi a wringing and compressing massage for adults and Takahi which involves the client being walked over sore or injured parts to relieve aches and pains. Deformities were structurally corrected or altered from birth for future working or aesthetic benefits. Chosen women would learn the ways of massage by observation to carry on the tradition and were often selected from delivery if they were born in a breached position, as it was a popular belief they were intended to practice Takahi massage (Riley, 1994). The three main strokes can be compared with the western strokes used today. Mirimiri involves short strokes with the fingers and can be matched up to effleurage, Tukituki is the process of an up and down pounding, similar to tapotement to stimulated the nervous system and Romiromi is the kneading motion used generally, this is similar to petrisage however the Swedish stroke is used for more specific areas to decrease areas of tension (Riley, 1994)

Massage Scandals 1800’s

Another decline of massage practice in the twenty century was the result of the reputation being discredited among medical practitioners and the general public. Inconsistent regulation of the massage education system provoked this as the quality of the graduated therapists could not be determined. To further discredit the reputation, a number of massage parlours were also popping up around the place where massage was a disguise for the prostitution industry. In 1894 eight women acknowledged the need for standardisation and established the Society of Trained Masseuses. They set academic prerequisites for massage schools, only the qualified could teach and also introduced certificates of competence. Thus the standard increased. In 1939 the membership had grown to 12,000 however membership was still voluntary so ill-trained practitioners were still in their thousands. (Fritz, 2009).

The development of professional massage in New Zealand:

In the early 1900’s there were over 300 massage therapists established in New Zealand. From 1913 to 1946, massage was taught in Dunedin at the Otago University and through the hospital. The government introduced a legislation to have legal registration for all therapists in the Masseurs Registration Act of 1920. When the Physiotherapy Act was introduced in1949, it affected massage therapists as they too were included. Consequently they had to register as physiotherapists and undertake 600 hours of training to be a massage therapist if they were to stay true to the 1949 Act (Tuchtan, Tuchtan and Stelfox, 2004). 1985 was a turning point for the massage profession when Bill Wareham founded the Massage Institute of New Zealand Incorporated (MINZI). The focal point was to standardise the training of massage therapists. Jim Sandford established New Zealand Association of Therapeutic Massage Practitioners (NZATMP) in 1989 to support massage therapists. The primary focus was similar to that of MINZI including standards of professionalism and recognition of massage as a profession in New Zealand. The association had a name change to Therapeutic Massage Association (TMA) and with it came change of focus (Tuchtan, Tuchtan and Stelfox, 2004). Today the Massage New Zealand association has derived from the unity of MINZI and TMA. It promotes learning and is a voice for the massage industry by educating the general public and trying to change the misconceptions that the profession still has from decades ago.

Body-mind-spirit and how it relates to the historical and cultural contexts discussed:

The Eastern approach to health differs from traditional medicine in its appreciation of the spiritual wellbeing. This dimension relies on the principle of chi, the life force that flows through the body. The consideration of each and every aspect of the person is referred to as the holistic approach (Tuchtan, Tuchtan and Stelfox, 2004). Throughout history the western world has had a more scientific approach to massage. Although the Greeks referred to males who exercised as an ascete meaning a person who utilized their body and mind (Beck, 2006), this concept had not continued to be passed down as part of conventional medicine for many centuries. Since an illness is the result of an imbalance of the body, connecting the body mind and spirit while performing massage has the potential to be helpful to many ailments as it services the body as a whole. With the integration of many different cultural aspects in society, the acceptance of the body-mind-spirit is slowly being acknowledged as beneficial in today’s health care sector.


In conclusion, massage with a 5000 year lineage has stood the test of time. Having had to prove itself for many centuries, massage is becoming accepted in today’s health care in all shapes and forms that it has now expanded to.

References:

Tuchtan, V. Tuchtan C. and Stelfox, D. (2004) Foundations of Massage (2nd ed.). Australia: Southwood Press Pty Ltd.

Beck, M. F. (2006). Theory and Practice of Therapeutic Massage (4th ed.). New York, United States of America: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Fritz, S. (2009). Mosby’s fundamentals of therapeutic massage (4th ed.). St. Louis, United States of America: Mosby.

Salvo, S. (2007). Massage Therapy: Principles and Practice (3rd Ed.). St Louis, United States: Saunders.